What is 3d Board

3D board is a new trend of three - dimensional and eco-friendly interior decorative product  . It is an elegant , artistic , trendy , innovative , personalized and durable product which creates the evolution and starts the 3D era of inerior decoration . #d board is an exciting new product which famous with its embossed , simple and fashionable design . it promises to transform ordinary interiors into spectacular and dramatic spaces .


3D Boared is a natural and renewable resources - Plant Fiber , which including bagasse ( sugarcane pulp ) , reeds , bamboo , etc as raw materials . Is is a non toxic product , doesnot contaion asbestos , formaldehyde or benzene . By extracting the natural plant fiber , 3D BOARD is formed through an environmentally friendly technologyu and production without formaldehyde emission .


3) Why use Plant Fiber ?
As main material; for 3D BOARD  Plant Fiber plays an important role of providing high impact design solutions with little impact on the environment .

Tables for calculating link budget

To calculate the link budget , simply approximate your link distance , then fill in the following tables :

Free Space Path Loss at 2.4 Ghz

If the received signal is greater than the minimum received signal strength in both directions of the link , as well as any noise received along the path , then the link is possible .

Link planning softwarte


While calculating a link budget by hand is straightforward , there are a number of tools avaiable that will help automate the process . In addition to calculating free space loss . these tools will take many other relevant factors into account as well ( such as tree absorption , terrain effects , climate , and even estimating path loss in urban areas ) . In this section , we will discuss two free tools that are useful for planning wireless links : Green Bay Professional Packet Radio ;s online intereactive network design utilities , and Radio mobile .



Interactive design CGIs

The Green Bay Professional packet Radio group ( GBPRR) has made a variety of very useful link planning tools avaiable for free online . You can browse these tools online at http :
Since the tools are avaiable online , they will work with any device that has a web browser and Internet access .

We will look at the first tool , wireless Network Link Analaysis  , in detail . You can find it online at

To begin , enter the channel to be used on the link . This can be specified in MHz of Ghz . If you dont know the frequency , consult the table in Appendix B . Note that the table lists the channel;s center frequency , while the tool asks for the highest transmitted frequency . The difference in the ultimate result is minmal , so feel free to use the center frequency instead . To find the highest transmitted frequency for a channel , just add 11mHz to the center frequency .

Next , enter the details for the transmitter side of the link , including the tranmission line type , antennna gain , and other details . Try to fill in as much data as you know or can estimate . You can also enter the antenna height and elevation for this site . This data will be used for calculating the antenna tilt angle . For calculating Fresnel zone clearance , you will need to use GBPRR's Fresnel Zone Calculator .

The next section decribes the climate , terrain , and distance of the link . Enter as much data as you know or can estimate . Link distance can be calculated by specifying the latitude and longitude of both sites , or entered by hand .

Now , click the submit buttong for a detailed report about the proposed link . This includes all the data entered , as well as the projected path loss , error rateas and uptime . These numbers are all completely theoretical , but will give yoyu a rough idea of the feasibility of the link . By adjusting values ont he form , you can play "what -if?' to see how changing various parameters will affect the connection .

In addition to the baic link analysis tool , GBPRR provides a "super edition" that wull rpdice a PDF report , as well as a number of other very useful tools 9 including the Fresnel Zone Calculator , Distance & Bearing Calculator , adn Decibel Conversion Calculator to name just a few ) . Source code to most of the tools is provided as well .

Example link budget calculation

As an example , we want to estimate the feasibility of a 5km link , with one access point and one client radio . The access point is connected to an omni directional antenna with 10 dBi gain , while the client is connected to a sectorial antenna with 14 dBi gain . The transmitting power of the Ap is 100m W ( or 20dBm ) and its sensitivity is -89 dBm . The trasmitting power of the client is 30mW ( or 15 dBm ) and its sensitiity is -82 dBm . The cable are short , with a loss of 2dB at each side .

Adding up all the gains and subtracting all the losses for the Ap to client link gives :

2- dBm ( TX Power Radio 1 )
+ 10 dBi ( Antenna Gain Radio 1 )
- 2 dB ( Cable Cables :psses Radio1  )
+ 14 dBi ( Antenna Gain Radio 2 )
= 40 dB = Total Gain

The path loss for a  5k m link , considering only the free space loss is : the same on the return trip . So our received signal elvel on the access point side is :

35dB - 113 dB = -78 dB

Since the receive sensitivity of the Ap is  89 dBm , this leaves us 11dB of fade margin ( 89dB - 78 dB ) . Overall , this link will probably work but couild use a bit more gain . By using a 24dBi dish on the client side rather than a 14 dBi sec torial antenna , you will get an additional 10 dBi of again on both directions of the link ( remember , antenna gain is reciprocal ) . A more expensive option would be to use higher power radios on both ends of the link , but note that adding an amplifier or higher powered card to one end generally des not help the overall quality of the link .

Online tools can be used to calculate the link budget . For example , the Green Bay Professional packet Radio's Wireless Network Link Analysis  is an excellent tool . The super Edition generates a PDF  file containing the Fresnel zone and radio path graphs . The calculation scripts can even be downloaded fromthe website and installed locally .

The Terabeam website also has excelllent calculators avaiable online .

Link planning

A basic commjunication system consists of two radios , each with its asosociated antenna , the two being separated by the path to be covered . In order to have a communication between the two , the radios require a certain minimum singnal to be collected by the antennas and presented tot heir input socket . Determining if the link is feasible is a process called link budget calculation . Whether or not signals can be passed between the radios depends on the qualit of the equipment being used and on the diminishment of the signal due to distance , called path loss .

Calculateing the link budget

The power abailable in an 802.11 system can be characterized by the following factors:
- Transmit power . It is expressed in milliwatts or in dBm . Transmit Power ranges from 30mW to 200mW  or more . TX power is often dependent on the transmission rate . The TX power of a given device should be specified in the literature providd by the manufacture , but can sometimes be difficult to find . Online database such as the one provided by Seatle Wireless

- Antena Gain . Antenans are passive devices that create the effect of amplification by virtue of their physical shape . Antennas have the same characteristics when receiving and transmitting . So a 12 dBi antenna is simply a 12 dBi antenna , without specifying if it is in transmission or reception mode . Parabolic antennas have a gain of 19-24 dBi , omnidirectional antennas have 5-12 dBi , sectorial antennas have roughly a 12-15 dBi gain .

-Minimum Received Signal Level , or simply , the sensitivity of the receiver . The minimum RSL is always expressed s a negative dBm ( -dBm ) and is the lowest power of singnal the radio can distinguish . The  minimum RSL is dependent upon rate , and as a general rule the lowest rate ( 1Mbps ) has the greatest sensitivity . The minimum will be typically in the range of -75 to -95 dBm . Like TX power , the RSL specifications should be provided by the manufacturer of the equipment .

-Cable losses . ome o the signal's energy is lost in the cables, the connectors and other devices , going from  the radios to the antennas . The loss depends on the type of cabl;e used and on its length . Signal loss for short coaxial cables including connectors is quite low , in the range of 2-3 dB /.It is better to have cables as short as possible .

When calculating the path loss , several effects must be considered . one has to take into account the free space loss , attenuation and scattering . Signal power is diminished by geometric spreading of the wavefront , commonly known as free space loss . Ignoring evertthing else , the further away the two penent rom the environment , depending only on the distance . This loss happends because the radiated signal eenergy expands as a function of the distance from the transmitter .

Using decibels to express the loss and using 2.45 Ghz as the signal frequency , the equation for the free space loss is

Lfsi = 40 + 20*log

Where Lisi is expressed in dB and r is the distance between the transmitter and receiver in meter .

The second contribution to the path loss is given by attenuation . This takes place as some of the signal power is absorbed when the wave passes through solid objects such as trees , walls , windws and floors of buildings . Attenuation can vary greatly depending upon the structure of the object the signal is passing through , and it is very difficult to quantity . The most conventient way to express its contribution to the total loss is by adding an "allowed loss" to the free space . For example , experience shows that trees add 10 to 20 dB of loss per tree in the direct path , while walls contribute 10 to 15 dB depending upon the contruction .

Along the link path , the RF energy leaves the transmitting antenna and energy spreads out . Some of the RF energy reaches the receiving antenna directly , while some bounces off the ground . Part of the RF energy which bounces off the ground reches the receiving antenna . Since the reflected signal has a longer way to travel , it arrives at the receiving antenna later than the direct signal . The effect is called mutyipath , or singla dispersion . In some cases reflected signal add together and cause no problem . When they add together out of phase , the received signal is almost worthless . In some cases the signal at the receiving antenan can be zeroed by the reflected signals . This is known as extreme fading , or nulling . There is a simple technique  that is used to  deal with multipath , called antenna diversity . it consists of adding a second antenna to the radio . Multipath is in fact a very location  -specific phenomenon . If two singnal add out of phase at one lacation , they will not add desctructively at a second , nearby location . If there are two antennas , at least one of them should be able to receive a usable signal , even if the other is receiving a distorted one . In commercialdevices , antenna switching diversity is used : there are multiple antennas on multiple inputs , with a single receiver . The signal is thus received through only one antenna at a time  . When transmitting , the radio uses the antenna last used for reception . The distortion iven by multipath degrades the abi,lity of the receoiver to recover the signal in a manner much like signal loss . A simple way of applying the effects of scattering in the clculation of the path loss is to change the exponent of the distance factor of the free space loss formula . The exponent tends to increase witht the range in an environment with a lot of scattering . An exponent of 3 can be used in an outdoor environment with trees , while one of 4 can be used for an indoor environment .

When free space loss , attenuation , and scattering are combined , the path loss is :

L(dB = 40 + 10 *n*log (r) + L ( allowed )

For a rough estimate of the link feasiblility , one can evaluate just the free space loss . The environment can bring further signal loss , and should be considered for an exact evaluation of the link . The environment is in fact a very imortant factor , and should never be neglected .

To evaluate if a link is feasible , one must know the characteristic of the equipment being used and evaluate the path loss . Note that when performing this calculation , you should only add the TX power  of one side of the link . If you are using different radios on either side of the link , you should calculate the path loss twice , once for each direction  ( using the appropriate TX power for each calculation ) . Adding up all the gains and subtracting all the losses gives

TX power Radio 1
+ Antenna Gain Radio 1
- cable losses radio 1
+ Antenna Gain Radio 22
- Cable Losses Radio 2
= Total Gain

Subtractin the Path Loss from the Total Gain  :
Total Gaoin - Path Loss = signal level at one side of the link

If the resulting signal level is greater than the minimum rteceived signal level , then the link is feasible ! . The received signal is powerful enough for the radios to use it . Remember that the minimum RSL is alwasys espressed as a negative dBm  , so -56 is greater than -70 dBm . On a given path , the variation in path loss over a period of time can be large , so a certain margin ( difference between the signal level and the minimum received signal level ) should be considered . This margin is the amount of signal aboive the sensitivity of radio that should be received in order to ensure a stable , high quality radio link during bad weather adn other atmospheric disturbances . A margin of 10 to 15 dB is fine . To give some space for attenuation and multipath in the received radio signal , a margin of 20dB should be safe enough .

Once you have calculated the link budget in one direction , repeat the calculation for the other direction . Substitute the transmit power for that of the second radio , and compare the result against the minimum received signal level of the first radio .

Network Design

To estimate the necessary throughput you will need for your network , multiplay the expected number of users by the sort of application they will probably use . For example , 50 users who are cheifly browsing the web will likely consume 2.5 to 5Mbps or more of thouughtput at peak times , and will tolerate some latency . on the other hand , 50 sumultaneous VoIP users would requires 5 Mbps or more of thourghput in both directions with absolutely no ltency . Since 802.11g wireless equipment is half duplex ( tat is , it only transmits or receies , never both at once ) you should accordingly double the required throughtput , for a total of 10Mbps . Your wireless links must provide that capacity every second , or conversations will lag

Since all of your users are unlikely to use the connection at precisely the same moment , it is common practice to oversubscribe available throughtput by some factor ( that is , allow more users than the maximum available band width can support ) . Oversubscribing by a factor of 2 to 5 is quite common . In all likelihood , you willl oversubscribe by some amount when building your network infrastructure . By carefully monitoring throughput throuightout your network , you will be able to plan when to upgrade various parts of the network , and how much additional resources will be needed .

Expect that no matter how much capactiy you supply , your users will eventually find applications that will use it all . As we'll see at the end of this chapter , using bandwidth shaping technieuqs can help mititgate some latency problems . By using bandwidth shaping , web caching , and other techniques , you can signigicantly reduce latency and increase overall network throughput .

To get a feeling of for the lag felt on very slow connections , the ICTP has put together a bandwidth simulator . It will simultaneously downloa a web page at full speed and at a reduced rate that you choose . This demonstattion gives you an immediate understanding of how low throughtput and high latency redyce the usefulness of the Internet as a communications tool . It is avaiable at Http:// wireless.ictp . trisete .it / simulator /

4 major of building deterioration agents

• Weather agent 
• Chemical agents 
• BIological agents 
• Mechanical agents 

Weathering agents of building dete4rioration 

- Solar radiation 

- Moisture 

- Wind 

- Driving rain 

- Atmospheric gases 

Solar radiation 

- Solar raditaiton is received at the surface of the earth both directl & diffused long-wave radiation . 

- The intensity of solar radiation reaching the earth is reduced because of reflection , scattering ,& adsorption of the radiation by water vapour , ozone , air & dust particles . 

The intensity of solar radiation rteaching the earth is reduced because of reflection , scattering & adsorption of the radiation by water vapour , ozone , air & dust particles . 

Ultra-violet radiation is of shorter wavelength belonging to the region beyojnd the volet end of the visible spectrum , while infra -red radiation is of longer wavelength beyond the red end of the visible spectrum . 

Solar radiation affects building materials in 2 ways i.e. phtotochemical reaction & thermal movement . 

Solar reactionm : photochemical Effects 

- The only chemical effect of visible & infra-red  radiation s to speed up the rate of feterioration caused by other agents .
- During the attack by ultra violet radiation , the main chain of the olymers may be broken in isolated locations or reactive areas in large molecules may react with other chains . The resultants cross-linking of the moleculres makes the material harder & more brittle .

- Exposure to ultra-violet radiation can also cause changes or loss of colour of the oranic materials , particularly the blues & greens . A good example of this is the yellowing & surface delamination of glass fibre reinforced polyesters sheet .

- Most building materials are opaque & are therefore susceptible to attack by radiation . But the radiation absorption coefficeient s vary considerably from materials to material , depending on the colour & texture .
- Solar radiation is abrorbed when it strikes a materials . As a materials warm up , it expand & as it cools off , it contract .

- A further effect of temperature is the change in viscosity that occurs in liquids & in some organic materials  , such as bitumens & sealants . As the materials is heated , it beconmes thinner & flows more easily . As it cools it thickens & at a sufficiently low temperature it can be quite brittle .

- Most chemical reactions increase in rate with increasing temperature  . For example , the degradation reactions responsible for the breakdown of plastic sheets are initiated by ultra violet readiation , but the rate of deterioration i s largely dependent on temperature .

Moisture
- Moisture is the principle agent of deterioration & is probably also the agent witht the greatest influence on the properties of materials .
- In many cases , moisture is a prerequisite for physical , chemical or biological reactions to take place .

Example include :
- Changes in relative humidity can lead to dimensional changes in materials , with dformation , crazing or cracking .
- Rain , especially when driven by strong winds , can erode & dissolve certain soft materials .


Moisture include
- When water freezes in the pores of materials such as bricks , stones & concrete , stresses are produced which may cause spalling of the surface .
- Presence of moisture can promorete corrosion of metals , efflorescence & other chemical reactions .

- Moisture also creates an environments for fungal growth as well as atack by insects in organic materials .
- Giants hailstones can cause damage to glass surfgace & roofing tiles .

Wind
- mWind can cause dampnsss by driving moistur einto or thouigh a building fabric & excessive heat uncontrolled air changes .

- The consequent compression & suction forces may result in the loading or lifting of the surface . Suction forces tend to remove roofs or covering along the vulnerable edges of a building .

Driving Rain
- Driving rain is rain carried along at an angle to the vertical by wind so that it impinges on the vertical surfaces of the building .

- The effect of driving rain is that the vertical surfaces dacing the wind now receive rainwater although at an angle . The run-off from the vertical surfaces will increase the loadss on any abutting horizontal or sloping surface unless the water is drained away separately .

- When a droplet of rain driven by wind stikes the building surface , it fall apart &  its kinetic energy may force part of the droplet into the pores of the material used in the construction .

- The accumulation of moisture within the material may cause expansion of the materials while slower surface drying cause contraction . The resultant stresses set up may lead to disintegration of the surface layer .

Atmospheric Gases

- Atmospheric gases include sulphur dioxide , carbon dioxide , oxygen & ozone .
- In the presence of moisture they contribute to the formation of acids that attack certain materials such as metals , concrete m other cementitious products & stones .
- Sulphur dioxide gases with other hydrocarbon emissions from power stations & other industrial pollutants , form what is generallyu known as acid rain .
- Its inujurious attack on building materials inclues erosion of brickwork & corrosion of metals .
- The presence of carbon diozide in the atmosphere is generally benefiticial is reacting with lime products to form a protective carbonated layers .
- Hoewver if carbionation is allowed to proceed as far as reinforcement in concrete , it can cause the corrosion of the steel bar .
- Oxygen can cause oxidation of organic material such as paints , plasters & sealants & is particularly severe on unprotected steelwork .
- Ozone , which is an unstable modification of oxygen , is very much more reactive towards organic materials . It plays a major role in the degradation of rubber , mastics , bituminous compounds , paints & plastics , which can result in their embrittlement & eventual failure .

Vandalism

Vandalism is caused by willful damage to the building or structure .

• Factors that increased the incidence of vandalism include : 

- Lack of security 

- Worng choice of materials 

- Poor space layout 

- Poor lighting arrangement 

- Failure to promtoe awareness of social responsibility . 

Change of Use of Building

• Building for normally designed for a specific use . 
• During the design stage , the designers will make provision for tha use only . These provisions may be for space layout , floor loading requirements , acoustic standard , thermal transmisision & type of finishes , services , fittings & equipment . 
• Alteration or change of use by the owners or users without the designer's knowledge will affect the rate of building deterioration & sometimes failure . 

Construction Faults

• The site personnel can be just as guiltuy of promoting deterioration o building by bad workmanship , inadequate supervision & the substitution of por materials , components or fixings . 
• There is a constant need for stringent control of both the work on site as well as the materials used for constructions . 

1. Control of work on site 

- Carefuyl supervision of building work at all stagesis necessary to complement good design , specifications Y detainling by the designers . 

- There are some diificulties in ensuring workmanship is of an adequate standard due to : 

• Increasing difficulty in recruiting workers with the necessary skills for the construction industry . 
• Lack of properly trained workforce . 
• The increase in the number of ocmpelx projects in recent years requires carefull coordination . 
• There may be an over-emphasis on quantity rather than quiality of construction . 

2. Control of Materials 

- It is necessary that the contractor should arrange for all deliveries & documents to be checked carefully to make sure that the materials deliveted tot he site comply with the specifications or samples . 

- Sometimes it may be desirable to test the samples in adidition to visual checking . 

- Materials which do not compley with the specifications should be rejected 

- The contractor may be tempted to substitute inferior materials rather than have such delays . This should only be allowed with the approval of the designer . 

3. Lack of Maintenance 

- The brief of a new building should be include : 

• Performance requirements 
• Possible change in use 
• Operating requirements 
• Cleaning requirements 
• Maintenance requirements 

-The client's brief for a new building often determines the long-terms maintenance need of the building . 

- It should indicates performance requirements & possible changes in use , as well as the future policy for operating , cleaning & maintaining the building .  

- The designer should provide advice to the client on maintenance mattes so that the performance & druability of the building itself & of the fittings & equipment , can be enhanced . 

- The effects of feterioration can be minimised by a serious commitment toward maintance by the users of the building . 

- The failure to allocate sufficient financial resources for maintenance may have serious implications on the standard of maintenance for the property . 

- The use of inferior materials may accelerate the deterioration of the materials & increase future maintenance costs . 

Design & mmaintainability

• In designing for maintainability , many designers are often trapped in a dillemma : whether " form should follow function " or "function should follow forms ". 
• Designers are often crticized for giving too much emphasis to aesthetics at the expense of maintainabiolity . 
• The structural forms & maintenance considerations during te design & planning stages for & building services are intimately related to architecturral considerations . 
• There must be continuous interaction between the architect & the engineers in the initial planning as well as in the final design of the building . 
• The architec tmust accord a helathy respect to the structural , mechanical & electrical needs of the building . 
• Likewise the engineers must have an equal respect for the architect's conmcern for aesthetics , form & flow of movement . 

Examples of Poor Planning & Design  

- nadequate provision of space around plant & equipment for proper maintenance to be carried out . 

- Inadequate provision of space in ceiling resulting in inefficient air - conditioning ductwork . 

- Inadequate provision of ceiling accessibility for maintenance . 

- Locating wet pipes in electrical rooms . 

Examples of Good Planning & Design 

- Adequate provision of space around plant & equipment for proper maintenace to be carried out . 

- Adequate provision of space in ceiling for M& E services . 

-Good planning of access routes so that bulky equipment can be easily replaced . 

-Provision of building automation systems . 

Building Shape & Form

The influence of building shape & form on maintenance expenditure can be summariesed as follows :

- High Rise buildings Vs Low - rise Buildings
- Complex Buildings Vs . Simple Buildings .
- Old Building vs . New Buildings

High - rise Buildings Vs Low - rise Building
Generally maintenance costs are higher for high rise building than low - rise ones of similar shape

CAUSE BY
- The higher the proportion of services like lifts & lighting
- More communal areas
-Problems of accessibility for redecoration & repair .


Complex Building Vs . Simple Building
- Complex shapes building are also more expensive to maintain because of additional cost incurred in providing

Temporary support system
Slower working rate
Higher overheads .

Old building vs New Building
- Older buildings are also more expensive to maintain because of the need to replace or repair more components which have reached their useful and economic lifespans . THe effect of age on high-rise buildings is even geater because of a higher proportion of services to be overhauled or replaced .


Orientation of Building
- The orientation or arrangement of the axis of a building is a way of controlling the effects of the sun , wind and rain since the sun is regular in its path & favours the southerns aspects of buildings in the northern hemisphere .
- The building may be orientated to capture the heat of the sun or else it may be turtned to avoid the solar heat in the tropics .

- Orientation may also be used to control air flow circylation & reduce the disadvantages of wind , rain and snow when existing currents are predictable .

- The character of the local terrain may have some infleucne of the final oreintation of the building by the way in which rolling ground , trees & adjacent buildinbgs create shade & reduce or intensify the effects of the wind .

Structural Forms

• The building fabric as an envrionmental envelope must be able to safety withstand all the forces to which it will be subjected in tis lifetime . 
• There are 3 basic structural forms : 

1. Skeletal ( or frame ) structure . 
2. Solid ( Or load Bearing wall ) structure 
3. Surface structure . 

A skeletonb or framework which supports all the loads & resist all the forces acting on a building & transfer them to the soil where the building rests . 

Solid ( Or Load Bearing Wall ) Structure 

• The thick load bearing wall acts as both the enclosing & supporting structure . 
• For most high rise buildings , part of the structure ( e.g. lift core wall ) are solid structures to resist lateral loads like wind . 

Timber

• Timber varies in bending strength according to : 

- The species & 

- The presence or absence of knots & faults in the timber 

• Its stiffness is low but in relation ot its own weight which is quite light , it is relatively very stiff . 
• Timber is a combustible material & can be attacked by wood boring insect like termites . 

Concrete

• Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension . 
• Its tensile strength is only about 10 % - 20 % of its compressive strength . 
• To overcome its weakness in tension , concrete tension members are either : 

- reinforced with steel bars or presstressed with steel wires or cables .

Properties of concrete 

• Strength varies according to mix proportion 
• High compressive strength 
• Very good fire protection 
• Low stiffness comparted to steel 
• Low strength to weight ratio 
• Low tensile strength , Need to be : 

Reinforced by steel bars

Prestressed by steel wires . cables 

Used for : 

- Low rise buiding frames 

- High rise building frames 

Properties of steel

• High compressive strength 
• High tensile strength 
• High stiffness - difficult to deform 
• High strength to weight ratio 
• Need fire protection 
• used for 

- low rise building frames ( e.g. factories ) 

- High rise building frames 

- Roof structures . 

Steel

• Steel is  a material strong in both compression & tension . It is also a stiff material . 
• However steel in many circumstances requires the provision of fire - protection , such as encasement varmiculite or fire retardant paint . 

Buildingt Materials

• The main structural frame building materials used in Malaysian construction industry are : 

- Concrete ( reinfroced & prestressed ) 

- Steel 

- Timber 

The functional requirements of the element sof a building are :

1. adequate strength & stability . 
2. Weather resistance 
3. Thermal insulation 
4. Sound insulation 
5. adequate light & air . 
6. Fire protection 

Fuunction Requirements 

• The primary function requirement of a building is tot carry safely all the loads imposed it without deforming excessively under load as  a whole or in its parts . 
• This function is efficiently achieved if its design & construction are provided  with adequate strength , stability & fire resistance . 

Comfort COnditions

• Temperature (DBT) 25 Celcius in summer , 5 celcius in winter 
• Humidity (RH) : 70 % in humid day , 40% in dry day 
• Sound ( Sound Level ) : 70 dB busy office , 30 dB quiet room 
• Lighting ( illuminance ) : 10,000 lux shop display , 400 lux office lighting , 50 lux hallway 

What is Needed For Human Comfort ?

We need to construct a built environment with comfortable places where we can live & work .

The physical comfort of humans greatly depend on :
- Temperature ( heat )
- Humidity ( quality of air )
- Lighting
- Sound

Natural Environment and Build Environment

Hot , dry climate 

• Roof overhangs to provide shade . 
• openings for breezes . 
• Light-cloloured exterior surfaces 
• R.C. flat roof to minimse heat gain 
• THick heavy walls to absorb temperature fluctuations . 

Warm , humid climate 

• Buildings on stilts fro ventilation . 
• Roof overhangs 
• Light-coloured exterior surfaces . 
• Covered walkways . 
• Plants & vegetation fopr shading . 

Cold Climate 

• High insulation 
• Tightly sealed construction 
• Good sunsyhine exposure to keep warm air inside building * in summer ) 
• Strong roofs for snow . 

Temperate climate 

• Stronbg roofs for load 
• SLoping roof to discard snow 
• Air tight construction to prevent heat loss . 
• Glass with shading to admit sun's heat in summer but not in winter . 

Connectiopn Between Environments

• Fromn the earlies tiotmes , people have adapted their habitat to rpvide shelter from the weather & other threat to life . 
• Modern building ionvplve so many features in design that it is easy to forget the main aim of building design is to provide an internal environment that is different from the external environment . 
• A built environment responds to the local natural environment 
• Different types of buildings are therefore found in different parts of the worls . 
• CLimate plays a major part in determining the features of the buildings . 
• 
  

Built Environment

Built environment is formed by buildings & the other structures that humans construct in the natural environment
Example : Buildings , water & drainage systems , transport systems , power systems , communication systems .

Natural Environment

Natural environment is the entire environment , conceived of all the natural resources but without huan presence of interference .
Example : Climate , mountains , rivers , rocks , soils , trees

Repair Materials

1. Cement / Sand Mortars

• Unmodified cement / sand mortars with special waterproofing admixtures added , are the most cost= effective repair materials available for damage areas where the cover exceeds 25mm 

Advantages : 

• Most cost - effective 
• Fire - resistant 
• Less sensitive to changes in temperature . 

Disadvantages : 

• Poor strength in 
• Compression ( squeeze ) 
• FLexure (bend ) 
• High surface permeability 
• Poor adherence to the substrate 
• High shrinkage after setting 
• BOnd failure 

2. Polymer Latex 

• Used in combination with Portland cement to obtain certain advantages such as reduced pemeability , stronger bond to existing concrete , increase in tensile strength of the repair , improve workability & better chemical resistance . 
• Various types of polymer - modified latex : 

1. Polyvinyl acetate ( PVA ) 
2. Styrene butadiene rubber (SBR) 
3. Polyvinylidene Chloride 
4. Acrylics & 
5. Modified acrylic 

Polymer latex acts in several ways : 

• A a water- reducing plasticiser to give better workability & reduce shrinkage . 
• Improves the bond between the repair mortar & the substrate . 
• Reduces the permeability of the repair materials to water , carbon dioxide & oils . 
• Increase resistance of the repair material to chemical attack . 
• Acts to some degree as an essential curing aid . 

Epoxy Resins  

• Most epoxy resin mix used in concrete repairs are solvent free & cure by chemical reaction between the resin & the hardener . 
• Epoxy resin systems develop high strength & have a shorter curing time than cementitious materials , they also have low shrinkage during & after curing . Characteristic 
• Outstanding adhesive qualities  to concrete as well as steel . 
• Resistant to most acids & alkalis & othe chemicals , 
• Rather vulnerable to organic solvents . 
• Low shrinkage when the compound cures & change from liquid to solid state . 
• High compressive , tensile & flexural strength . 
• Poor resistance to fire  

Polyester Resins 

• SLightly cheaper than epoxies but are still considerably more expensive than cementitious mortar . 
• Advantages : 

1. Good resistance to a wide range of chemicals . 
2. high resistance to abrasion & water penetration 
3. High bond strength with most building materials . 
4. The amount of heat evolved during curing is greeater than with epoxies . 
5. Most polyesters do not bond well to damp surfaces . 
6. Little resistance to fire . 

Selectio9n of Repair Method

• Requires careful consideration - whether to meet special requirements for placing , strength , durability or other short or long term properties . 

These considerations include : 

1. Nature of the distress 
2. Position of the crack 
3. Environment 
4. WOrkmanship 
5. Cost 
6. Appearance 

1. Nature of the distress 

If a live crack is filled with a rigid materials , the repair material will either fail or some new crfacks will appear adjacent to original crack . 

- Repair to live cracks must either use flexible material to accommodate movement or else steps must be taken to eliminate movement 

2. Position of the crack 

- Methods which rely on gravity to place material into cracks are more successfully carried out on horizontal surfaces than vertical ones . 

3. Environment 

- If moisture or water are found in the cracks , it is necessary to rectify the leaks . 

- Repair may be complicated because structure is in service & the environment is damp . 

4. Workmanship 

- The skill of the workman carrying out the repair is important 

- It can mean the difference between a permanent repair & a premature failure . 

5. Cost 

- Cost of repair materials is usually small compared to cost of providing access , preparation  & labour . 

6. Appearance 

- The repaired surface may be unsightly especially  when it appearted on a prominent part of a building . 

- In this case , the repair system should include some form of treatment over the entire surface . 

Performance Requirement of Repair System

1. Durability 
2. Protection of steel 
3. Bond with Substrate 
4. Dimensional Stability 
5. Initial Resistance to ENvironment Induced Damage 
6. Ease of Application 
7. Appearance . 

Durability -  Material should be at least as durable as the substate concrete to which it is applied . 

Protetion of steel - Cementitious materials can protect the steel from futther corrosion by their inhibitive effects of increasing the alkalinity of the concrete 

Expoxy resin mortars can give protection against the access of oxygen , moisture & other harmful materials . 

Bond WIth subtrate 

- Must produce an integral repair to prevent of moisture & atmospheric gases at the interface . 

- The bond is greatly enhanced with the use of a suitable bonding aid such as 

- an unfilled epoxy primer for epoxy resins systems & 

- A slurry of Portlan d cement , plus any latex additive for a Portland cement - based repair system . 

Dimensional Stability 

Shrinkage of materials during curing should be kept to a minimum . 

Initial Resistance to Environmentally Induced Damage 

- Partially cured Portland cement repairs can deteriorate from hot weather preventing full hydration of the cement . 

- To prevent this from happening , extra protection during curing time may be necessary . 

Ease of Application 

- Materials should be easily mixed & applied so that they can be worked readily into small gap & voids . 

Apperance 

- A surface coating may be required when apperance is important or when cover to reinforcement is small . 

Pull out test

Principle of Test : Involve the measurement of the force requirewd to extract a metal insert from within the concrete against a reaction ring .

- Because of its shape , the steel rod is pulled out with a cone of the concrete .
- The concrete is simultaneously in tension & in shear , the generated lines of the cones running at about 45 degree to the direction of pull .

- The pull-out force is then related to the compressive strength of the concrete .
- The most reliable method of obtaining the strength of concrete in a structural member is the cutting of cores for subsequent preparation & crushing in a laboratory .

- Cores are to be of 50 to 200mm diameter & at least 100mm depth .

- After trimming & capping to provide parallled end faces , cores should be stored in water for at least 48 hours prior to testing .

- Besides compressive strength test , cores can be tested for the following :

• Visual inspection for surface conditions , depth of deterioration , fractures , unsual deposits , colouring or staining , voids & other features . 
• Tensile strength . 
• Transverse , longitudinal & torsional frequencies . 
• Static modulus of elasticity 
• Chemical tests on mix proportions , chloride content & other properties . 
• Concrete cores are partially destructive & care shouyld be taken to ensure that the integrity of the structure is not adversely affected by the coring . 

Penetration Resistance Test ( Or windsor Probe Test )

Principle of The test : THe penetration resistance depends on the strength of the concrete mass .

Method : Fire a standard probe into the concrete with a standard cartridge .

Theory : Exposed probe is longer , compressive strength is higher .

The depth of penetration , which will usually lie between 20 and 40mm , is measured & the mean of three readings is related emprirically to compressive strength by calibration charts .

THe strength is assessed by the length of probe which remains upstanding on the concrete surface .

The results are not influenced by surface conditions , moisture content or ambient temperature but by the hardness of aggregates used .

Some damage in the form of cracking may be caused . Reinforcment must be avoided & simple safety precautions should be taken .

Surface Hardness Test ( Rebound Hammer )

Principle : THe rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface on which the mass impinges .

THeory : Rebound number is higher , coimpressive strength is higher .

- THe appratus consists of a metal plunger , one ned of which is held against the concrete surface whle the free end is struck by a spring -loaded mass which rebounds to a point on a graduated scale .

- The amount of rebound increases in concrete strength for a particular concrete mix .

- The test is sensitive to the presence of aggregates & of voids immediately below the plunger .

- It is necessary to have at least 10-12 readings over the area to be tested in order for it to be representative of the member .

- Advantages :

QUcik to operate
Low cost
Non destructive
Hammer can be used horizontally , vertically or inclined .

Disadvantage
Results relate only to a surface zone of up to 30mm depth & may be affected by localised hardening due to carbonation .
Results may not accurate ( estimated error as high as 30% ) .
Finishes must be removed before testing since they tend to affect the results .
The test results are also influenced by the suface texture of the concrete , moisture , cement type , mix proportions & type of aggregates .

Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Principle of the test : The velocity of a wave passing through an elastic medium is a function of the modulus of elasticity of the material & its density .

THeory : Pulse velocity increases , compressive strength increase .

The technique consists of measuring the time of travel of an ultrasonic wave generated throught the concrete .

• The time taken for the pulse to travel between the initial onset & its reception is measured electronically . 
• The average velocity of wave propogation or pulse velocity is determined by dividing the known path length between the transducer by the time taken . 
• Pulse velocity = distance travelled ( km ) / time ( s) 
• Travel Time : Time taken for pulse to travel between the 2 transducers . 
• Distance travelled : Path between 2 transducers . 
• The main advantages of this method are that it is totally non-destructive , quick to operate & reflects the quality of the interior of the concrete member . 
• Useful in obtaining a considerable number of readings in a relatively short time for the assessment of uniformity of hardened concrete . 

Sikhisme

1. Sikhisme diasaskan oleh Guru Nanak Dev ( 1269-1539 ) yang dilahirkan di Nankana Sahib , Punjab ( India pada ketika itu , Pakistan pada masa kini ) . Pada ketika itu agama utama yang dianuti oleh penduduk di kawasan Punjab ialah agama Hindu dan Islam . 
2. Guru nanak dilahirkan sebagai seorang Hindu . Sejak kecil lagi beliau mempunyai minat yang mendalam tentang agama dan telah mempelajari agama Hindu dan islam . Sejak kecil lagi beliau telah menunjukkan keupayaan untuk berfikir secara mendalam tentang isu-isu keagamaan .Beliau telah mengambil ciri-ciri agama Hindu dan Islam untuk membentuk rangka ajaran Sikhisme . Guru Nanak telah menjelajah ke kawasan lain di India dan di luar India untuk mengajar agama Sikh . 
3. Ajaran agama Sikh boileh disimpulkan melalui kata-kata Guru Nanak , iaitu " kesedaran tentang kebenaran adalah lebih penting daripada semua yang lain , tetapi yang lebih penting lagi ialah kehidupan yang benar". 
4. Agama Sikh ialah agama monoteistik . Tuhan dipanggil sebagai Waheguru . Tuhan bersifat Maha Wujud dan infinitif . Tempat orang Sikh bersembahyang dalam bentuk abstrak . Orang Sikh tidak menggunakan sebarang simbol atau patung . 
5. Ajaran Guru nanak telah diteruskan oleh sembilan orang guru , iaitu Angad Dev , Amar Das , Ram Das , Arjan Das , Har Gobind , Har Rai , Har Krishan , Tegh Bahadur , dan Gobind Singh . 
6. Guru-guru sikh mengajar penganut Sikh mengembangkan nilai-nilai positif penganuatnya , iaitu kebenaran , kiasih syang , belas kasihan , berpuas hati dengan apa yang dimiliji dan rendah hati kerana sifat ini dapat mendekatkan diri seseorang kepada TUhan dan menjauhkan diri daripada kejahatan . 
7. Sebelum Guru yang ke-10 , Gobind Singh meninggal dunia , beliau telah menyatakan bhahawa beliau adalah guru yang terakhir dan selapas itu kitab suci , 

Pandangan Taoisme Terhadap Isu Moral

Dalam isu homoseksualiti , tindakan pengamal adalah tidak bermoral kerana tindakannya telah mengubah hukum semula jadi untuk mengikut acuan yang dikehendakinya .

Oleh itu , hapuskanlah kepentingan diri sendiri secara beterusan . Sekirannya seseorang itu bertindak secara spontan sepenuh jiwanya dan menghapuskan sikap pentingkan diri sendiri , seseorang itu tidak akan mempunyai motif untuk terlibat dalam homoseksualiti .

Lima Model untuk Membentuk Perwatakan Mulia Manusia

a. Tao Te Ching menyenaraikan lima model untuk membentuk perwatakan manusia dengan bertindak secara semulajadi atau mengikut hukum alam ataupun sehaluan dengan ajaran Tao .

1. Air
Air berkedudukan paling rendah berbanding dengan semua benda yang lain . Bentuknya berdasarkan bekas yang mengisinya kerana sifat kesemulajadiannya . kekuatan air adalah boleh menghakis adan memushnahkan gunung di samping mengukir kedalaman gaung . Oleh itu , tingkah laku manusia juga perlulah rendah diri , tidak memaksa diri terhadap sesuatu .

ii. Bersifat dan berkelakuan seperti budak .
Budak yang kecil melambangkan kesucian dalam kespontanan , iaitu kerelaan hati untuk melihat kesemua perkara sebagai sesuatu yang baru dan menarik . Misalnya , kemampuan untuk tertarik dengan rama-rama ,tumbuhan -tumbuhan mahupun kotak yang kosong . Sifat ini juga merujuk kepada kekuatan yang tenang . Bayi boleh menjerit sehari suntuk tanpa suaranya menjadi rosak .

iii . Sebuku kayu yang tidak diukir
Sebuah kayu yang telah diukir akan menjadi tetap dan rigid . Undang-undang , peraturan ataupun norma hidup manusia mudah menukar pemikiran seseorang sehingga menjadi keadaan yang teruk , tidak asli , tiada kebebasan , tidak kreatif dan tidak bertindak secara spontan . Tanpa diukir, sebuku kayu ini boleh diukir menjadi apa-apa sahaja dan dalam pelbagai bentuk . Oleh itu , kayu merujuk kepada kekosongan , mudah , dan kejujuran secara semula jadi .

iv. Yin ataupun perempuan
Perempuan melambangkan sumber kekreatifan kehidupan , kesuburan dan kesenian . Amalan baik dalam perempuan termasuklah ketenangan dan keamanan , tidak bertindak secara agresif , tidak terburu - buru , penuh kesopanan , kreativiti , ketelitian , dan penuh dengan misteri .

v. Potensi kekosongan ( tiada apa-apa yang berharga) /
Tiada ruang yang lebih untuk berubah atau maju dan tiada apa-apa yang boleh ditambah . Minda yang kosong merupakan minda tanpa keinginan demi kepentingan sendiri , iaitu rendah diri , tanpa sebarang idea tentang bagaimanakah sesuatu perkara mesti terjadi tetapi menerima sesuatu perkara sebagaimana ciri perkara itu sendiri .

Tzu-jan ( keaslian , kespontanan )

a. Tzu-jan bermaksud kesalian , kespontanan "dengan sendirinya' . Dalam istilah kemanusiaan , Tzu-jan bermaksud bertindak secara spontan secara kesemulajadian . Kata lawan untuk Tzu-jan ialah segala tindakan yang bertentangan dengan kelancaran kreativii dan kespontanan , iaitu termasuklah keegoan , terlalu mengira , kebijaksanaan , menghakimi dan sebagainya .

Konsep-konsep Penting Dalam Taoisme

1. Wu-wei ( Tindakan kesemulajkadian )
a. TIndakan ini menjelaskan bahawa seseorang itu tidak berntindak secara bertentangan . Tidak memaksa sesuatu masuk ke dalam acuan kita , iaitu tidak memaksa sesuatu tindakan yang bertentangan dengan kesemualajadian seperti apa yang kita kehendaki . Tidak melakukan sesuatu di luar kemampuan manusia .

b. Tindakan ini dilakukan dengan mengelakkan diri daripada paksaan yang keras ketika berurusan dengan orang lain . membiarkan sesuatu perkara berlaku dan menerima kesan secara semula jadi .

C.  Seseorang yang bertindak mengikut keadaan secara semula jadi . Dunia dicipta , semua benda hidup membesar dan mati , kesemuannya tanpa tanda usaha .

d. Tanpa tindakian (WU-WEI) , anda membiarkan dunia bekerja untuk anda dan dapat menikmatinya manakala melalui tindakan , anda akan mendapati bahawa anda bekerja untuk dunia dan sentiasa mendapati bahawa segala tindakan anda adalah tidak mencukupi . Oleh itu , hidup manusia menjadi bererti setelah mencapai wu-wei .

e. Sekirannya anda mementingkan diri sendiri , anda akan mendapati bahawa anda berlainan dengan segala-galanya . Satu-satunya cara untuk mengenal pasti diri anda berinteraksi dengan kesemulajadian adalah dengan menghapuskan keegoan dalam prinsip kehidupan anda . Jika seseorang mengenal pasti dirinya dengan kesemulajadian atau natural , sifat keegoan akan ditenangkan . Seseorang yang mementingkan keegoaan tidak akan mencapai tindakan secara spontan . Dalam erti kata yang lain , tindakan wu-wei merujuk kepada tindakan tanpa ciptaan atau rekaan yang bertentangan dengan kesemulajadian .

TAOISME

1. Lao-Tzu merupakan pemikir utama dalam ajaran Taoisme dan ajarannya telah dibukukan dalam Tao Te Ching . Beliau dilahirkan pada 571 Sebelum Masihi . Lao Tzu pernah bekerja sebagai seorang pustakawan . 
2. Tao Te Ching merupakan sebuah buku yang ditulis dalam bahasa Cina . BUku ini amatlah ringkas dan hanya mengandungi lebih kurang lima ribu perkataan bahasa cina dalam bentuk puisi dan pengajaran dengan penuh kebijaksanaan yang teliti dan mendalam . 
3. Chuang -Tzu ( 369 Sebelum masihi - 286 Sebelum Masihi ) meneruskan usaha Lao - Tzu . Beliau menghasilkan buku Chuang -Tzu yang merupakana prosa yang menjelaskan falsafah Tao dengan menyelitkan unsur logik . Chuang-Tzu mempunyai 33 bab . Kaedah penyampaianya agak berbeza kerana Chuang-Tzu menggunakkan cara yang bersopan untuk mengkritik idea orang lain dengan memasukkan unsur-unsur jenaka dan humour . 

Pandangan Konfusianisme Terhadap Isu Moral

Pendermaan Organ 


Mengikut Konfusianisme , pendermaan organ merupakan satu tindakan yang mulia dan terpuji . Mengikut Konfusianisme , seseorang yang sanggup menderma organ untuk menyelamatkan nyawa orang lain memiliki nilai seperti Ren yang menyeru seluruh umat manusia dunia mengasihi satu sama lain . 

Konfusianisme

1. Pengaruh dan falsafah Konfusius banyak mempengaruhi masyarakat cina di seluruh dunia termasuk masuyarakat Cina di malaysia . Falsafah Konfusisu juga dikenali sebagai Ru Jia atau Konfusianisme . 
2. Ajaran Konfusius terkandung di dalam buku Lun Yu ( Analekta atau Analects ) . Lun Yu merupakan sebuah karya yang dicatat dan disunting oleh pengikut-pengikut Konfusius yang mengumpulkan segala kata-kata dan pemikiran Konfusius . 
3. Ajaran Konfusius menekankan lima hubungan antara manusia yang menetapkan peranan individu dalam masyarakat , iaitu : 

a. Hubungan antara suami dengan isteri , iaitu hubungan mesra harus dijalin antara suami dan isteri seperti suami mesti jujur terhadap isteri dan isteri harus patuh kepada suami . 

b.Hubungan antara bapa dengan anak , iaitu bapa harus berhati baik terhadap anak dan anak harus betanggungjawab terhadap orang tua . 

C. Hubungan antara raja dengan pegawai , iaitu raja harus berperikemanusiaan dan pengawai harus menunjukkan taat setia . 

d. Hubungan antara saudara tua dengan saudara muda (adik-beradik) , iaitu saudara tua harus bermurah hati dan membantu serta yang muda harus patuh dan hormat . 

e. Hubungan antara saudara tua dengan saudara muda (adik-beradik ) , iaitu saudara tua harus bermurah hati dan membantu serta yang muda harus patih dan hormat . 

e. Hubungan antara sahabat harus berasaskan kejujuran . 

4. Mengikut Konfusius , kalau setiap individu berkelakuan baik dalam hubungan sosial masing-masing , maka negara akan berada dalam keadaan yang aman dan makmur . 

5. Nilai -nilai murni yang ditekankan oleh Konfusianisme boleh dibahagikan kepada : 

a. Wu Chang ( Five Virtues ) iaitu lima sifat murni manusia atau etika manusia yang terdiri daripada : 

i. Ren - yang membawa maksud perikemanusiaan , iaitu manusia perlu memiliji sifat-sifat kemanusiaan , kasih sayang sesama manusia . 

ii.Yi - Bermaksud melakukan sesuatu dengan cara yang betul atau bermoral dan patutu dalam melaksanakan sesuatu tindakan . 

iv . Zhi - Zhi yang bererti kebijaksaan , iaitu seseorang harus mempunyai pengetahuan dalam pelbagai aspek . 

v. Xin - Xin bermaksud kebolehpercayaan , iaitu kita harus berpegang kepada janji dan menghulurkan bantuan kepada kawan apabila mereka memerlukan bantuan . 

b. Ba De atau lapan nilai murni : 

i . Xiao - bermaksud menunjukkan ketaatan kepada ibu bapa dan orang tua . Anak harus bertanggungjawab kepada ibu bapa semasa mereka tua . 

ii. Ti - Merujuk kepada kasih sayang terutamanya kasih sayang antara adik-beradik. Mengikut Konfusianisme , hubungan yang baik antara adik-beradik harus dijalin untuk mengelakkan konflik . 

iii, Zhong - Boleh ditakrifkan sebagai taat setia contohnya seseorang rakyat haruslah menunjukkan taat setia kepada negara , komuniti , pekerjaan masing-masing . 

iv. Xin - bermaksud kebolehpercayaan dan keikhlasan atau amanah . Sebagai manusia yang bermoral kita haruslah berpegang kepada janji kita dan tidak boleh menipu orang lain . Mengikut Konfusius , Konsep Xin harus ditekankan untuk mengelakkan penipuan dan penyelewengan . 

v. Li - Yang meliputi nilai bersopan santun , berbudi bahasa , kelakuan , uapacara amal dan istiadat bermaksud kita harus bersopan terhadap orang lain ,, mematuhi segala undang-undang dan peraturan . 

vi . Yi - Bermaksud  melakukan sesuatu dengan cara yang betul atau bermoral dan patut dalam melaksanakan sesuatu tindakan . 

Vii. Lian - membawa maksud kejujuran dan ketulusan , iaitu melakukan sesuatu dengan jujur dan tidak bersifat tamak . 

Viii . Chi -Chi bersifat mengenal malu . Seseorang yang mengenal malu , tidak akan melakukan sesuatu perbuatan yang melanggari norma hidup . 

Daripada lapan nilai murni di atas , terdapat nilai-nilai yang boleh digabungkan dan menjadi nilai yang lebih bermakna seperti : 

• Zhong + xiao = zhong xiao yang bermaksud menunjukkan taat setia kepada negara dan berbakti kepada ibu bapa . 
• Xin + Yi = Xin Yi pula merujuk kepada yang boleh dipercayai dan menepati janji . 

6. Jika setiap nilai yang terkandung dalam konfusianisme dipraktikan dengan sepenuhnya , perwatakan yang baik , keluarga yang bahagia dan negara yang adil serta masyarakat seluruh dunia yang aman dan damai dapat diwujudkan .